Aristotle, over 2,000 years ago, analyzed what made a sound argument. He said that any argument should have these three components, or else the argument would be weakened, or worse, flawed:
- Logos : logic, reason, facts, evidence
- Ethos : character of the arguer, credibility
- Pathos : emotional appeal, wording
When asked which of the above three components are the most important component of an argument, most people will say Logos - logical reason. But throughout history, successful arguers have realized that Pathos is what sways most people. Understanding the values and motivators of an audience will help you shape your argument's appeal, and persuasive power.
Aristotle also outlined two types of arguments:
I Argument of Fact
-- Subargument of existence
-- Subargument of definition
-- Subargument of quality
II Argument of Policy
-- Subargument of worth
-- Subargument of expediency
An example will help exemplify how to apply the above models. Think about proving that Company XYZ is dumping pollutants into the Neuse River. If you are going to create an argument of fact, you would need to do the following:
- Prove existence of the dumping (e.g., take a camera out to the company's plant and photograph a pipe coming from the company to the river with stuff coming out of it)
- Prove definition (e.g., take a coffee can and go out to the river and catch some of the stuff that is coming out of the pipe)
- Prove quality (e.g., take the stuff and have it tested to prove that it is toxic)
If you are going to use an argument of policy, you would probably do the following:
- Prove worth (e.g., gather information about how polluting the Neuse river creates fish kills and other bad consequences)
- Prove expediency (e.g., gather survey data showing how angry people are at the idea of the Neuse river being polluted, publish the results to motivate the company to stop dumping - for society's, and its own, interests)
We are inundated by arguments of policy on a daily basis. A stronger base from which to argue is a combination of the two. The following outline applies Aristotle's two types of argument in a usable framework:
- Introduction
- gains readers' attention and interest
- establishes your qualifications to write about your topic
- establishes common ground with readers
- demonstrates fairness
- states or implies your thesis
- Background
- presents any necessary background information
- Lines of argument
- present good reasons (including logical and emotional appeals) in support of your thesis
- generally present reasons in order of importance
- demonstrate ways your argument is in readers' best interest
- Refutation of opposing arguments
- considers opposing points of view
- notes both advantages and disadvantages of opposing views
- Conclusion
- summarizes the argument
- elaborates on the implication of your thesis
- makes clear what you want readers to think or do
- makes a strong ethical or emotional appeal
|
